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\title{Online Appendix to ``Cognitive Style and the Survey Response''}
\author{Thomas J. Leeper}

\begin{document}

\maketitle
\clearpage

\section{Exact Question Wordings and Response Distributions for Opinion Questions}

\subsection*{ANES 2008-2009 Online Panel}

The questions on the ANES 2008-2009 Online Panel were as follows. All questions were asked with identical wordings at both panel waves (Wave 1 and Wave 10). The response options were also the same for each question and involved a branching format. After the first part of the question, respondents were asked to select among `favor,' `oppose,' and `neither favor nor oppose' response options. Afterward, those respondents selecting `favor' or `oppose' were asked about the degree of their support. In the reported analysis, respondents who provided no answer or selected `neither favor nor oppose' in the first stage were coded as providing a nonattitude response. All other respondents were coded as providing a meaningful response. The table below shows the number (and percentage) of respondents who provided each type of response coded as a nonattitude. Given the small number of respondents not answering these questions, the results are substantively similar if those providing no answer are excluded.

\begin{center}
\input{tables/anes0809dist.txt}
\end{center}
{\tablenote Cell entries are numbers of respondents with percentages of all respondents in parentheses. Data from American National Election Studies 2008-2009 Online Panel.}

\begin{itemize*}
\item Do you favor, oppose, or neither favor nor oppose an amendment to the U.S. Constitution banning marriage between two people who are the same sex? Do you [favor/oppose] that (a great deal, moderately, or a little? / a little, moderately, or a great deal?)
\item Do you favor, oppose, or neither favor nor oppose raising federal income taxes for people who make more than \$200,000 per year? Do you [favor/oppose] that (a great deal, moderately, or a little? / a little, moderately, or a great deal?)
\item Do you favor, oppose, or neither favor nor oppose the U.S. government paying for all of the cost of prescription drugs for senior citizens who are living on very little income? Do you [favor/oppose] that (a great deal, moderately, or a little? / a little, moderately, or a great deal?)
\item Do you favor, oppose, or neither favor nor oppose the U.S. government paying for all necessary medical care for all Americans? Do you [favor/oppose] that (a great deal, moderately, or a little? / a little, moderately, or a great deal?)
\item Imagine that the U.S. government suspects a person in the United States of being a terrorist. Do you favor, oppose, or neither favor nor oppose the government being able to put this person in prison for months without ever bringing the person to court and charging him or her with a crime? Do you [favor/oppose] that (a great deal, moderately, or a little? / a little, moderately, or a great deal?)
\item Do you favor, oppose, or neither favor nor oppose the U.S. government being required to get a court order before it can listen in on phone calls made by American citizens who are suspected of being terrorists? Do you [favor/oppose] that (a great deal, moderately, or a little? / a little, moderately, or a great deal?)
\item Citizens of other countries who have come to live in the United States without the permission of the U.S. government are called ``illegal immigrants.'' Do you favor, oppose, or neither favor nor oppose allowing illegal immigrants to work in the United States for up to three years, after which they would have to go back to their home country? Do you [favor/oppose] that (a great deal, moderately, or a little? / a little, moderately, or a great deal?)
\item Do you favor, oppose, or neither favor nor oppose the U.S. government making it possible for illegal immigrants to become U.S. citizens? Do you [favor/oppose] that (a great deal, moderately, or a little? / a little, moderately, or a great deal?)
\end{itemize*}

\subsection*{ANES 2000, 2004, and 2008 Time Series Studies}

The 2000 survey involved face-to-face and telephone interviews. Question wordings and response options differed in the two formats. Generally, the telephone version involved shorter versions of the questions and a branching response format. Nonattitudes were recorded as any response that did not fall on the seven-point attitude scale (i.e., don't know, no answer, or `I haven't thought about this much'). Thus, different from the ANES 2008-2009 Online Panel, these questions did not have an explicit, equivocal middle category response. The 2004 survey used the same question wordings as the 2000 face-to-face interviews. The 2008 survey also used the same question wordings for the ``standard of living'' and ``aid to blacks'' questions, but used the same ``spending/services'' question for half of respondents and an experimental version for the other half of respondents that involved branching.

\begin{itemize*}
\item Spending/services
	\begin{itemize*}
	\item 2000:
		\begin{itemize*}
		\item Face-to-face: Some people think the government should provide fewer services even in areas such as health and education in order to reduce spending. Suppose these people are at one end of a scale, at point 1. Other people feel it is important for the government to provide many more services even if it means an increase in spending. Suppose these people are at the other end, at point 7. And, of course, some other people have opinions somewhere in between, at points 2,3,4,5 or 6. Where would you place yourself on this scale, or haven't you thought much about this?
		\item Telephone: Some people think the government should provide fewer services even in areas such as health and education in order to reduce spending.  Other people feel it is important for the government to provide many more services even if it means an increase in spending. Which is closer to the way you feel or haven't you thought much about this? [Should the government reduce services and spending a great deal or (reduce services and spending) only some? / Should the government increase services and spending a great deal or (increase services and spending) only some?]
		\end{itemize*}
	\item 2004: Same as 2000 face-to-face.
	\item 2008: Random half of respondents received the same as 2000 face-to-face. The other half received: Do you think the government should provide MORE services than it does now, FEWER services than it does now, or ABOUT THE SAME NUMBER of services as it does now? [Do you think that the government should provide A LOT more services, SOMEWHAT more services, or SLIGHTLY more services than it does now? / Do you think that the government should provide A LOT fewer services, SOMEWHAT fewer services, or SLIGHTLY fewer services than it does now?]
	\end{itemize*}
\item Standard of Living
	\begin{itemize*}
	\item 2000: 
		\begin{itemize*}
		\item Face-to-face: Some people feel the government in Washington should see to it that every person has a job and a good standard of living. Suppose these people are at one end of a scale, at point 1. Others think the government should just let each person get ahead on their own. Suppose these people are at the other end, at point 7. And, of course, some other people have opinions somewhere in between, at points 2,3,4,5, or 6. Where would you place yourself on this scale, or haven't you thought much about this?
		\item Telephone: Some people feel the government in Washington should see to it that every person has a job and a good standard of living. Suppose these people are at one end of a scale, at point 1. Others think the government should just let each person get ahead on their own. Suppose these people are at the other end, at point 7. And, of course, some other people have opinions somewhere in between, at points 2,3,4,5, or 6. Which is closer to the way you feel or haven't you thought much about this? [Do you feel strongly that the government should see to it that every person has a job and a good standard of living, or not so strongly? / Do you feel strongly that the government should just let each person get ahead on their own, or not so strongly?]
		\end{itemize*}
	\item 2004: Same as 2000 face-to-face.
	\item 2008: Same as 2000 face-to-face (only asked of random half of respondents).
	\end{itemize*}
\item Aid to Blacks
	\begin{itemize*}
	\item 2000: 
		\begin{itemize*}
		\item Face-to-face: Some people feel that the government in Washington should make every effort to improve the social and economic position of blacks. (Suppose these people are at one end of a scale, at point 1.)  Others feel that the government should not make any special effort to help blacks because they should help themselves. (Suppose these people are at the other end, at point 7.) And, of course, some other people have opinions somewhere in between, at points 2,3,4,5, or 6. Where would you place yourself on this scale, or haven't you thought much about this?
		\item Telephone: Some people feel that the government in Washington should make every effort to improve the social and economic position of blacks. Others feel that the government should not make any special effort to help blacks because they should help themselves. Which is closer to the way you feel, or haven't you thought much about this? [Should the government help blacks to a great extent or only to some extent? / Should blacks have to help themselves to a great extent or only to some extent?]
		\end{itemize*}
	\item 2004: Same as 2000 face-to-face.
	\item 2008: Same as 2000 face-to-face.
	\end{itemize*}
\end{itemize*}

\subsection*{ANES 1987 Pilot Study}

\begin{itemize*}
\item Standard question wording
	\begin{itemize*}
	\item Spending/services: Some people think the government should provide fewer services, even in areas such as health and education in order to reduce spending. Other people feel it is important for the government to provide many more services even if it means an increase in spending. Which is closer to the way you feel or haven't you thought much about this?
	\item Standard of living: Some people feel the government in Washington (A) should see to it that every person has a job and a good standard of living. Others think the government should just let each person get ahead on their own. Which is closer to the way you feel or haven't you thought much about this?
	\item Aid to Blacks: Some people feel that the government in Washington should make every effort to improve the social and economic position of blacks. Others feel that the government should not make any special effort to help blacks because they should help themselves. Which is closer to the way you feel or haven't you thought much about this?
	\end{itemize*}
\item Stop-and-think wording
	\begin{itemize*}
	\item Spending/services: Same as standard wording but ends with [We'd like to know how you feel about this, but before telling me how you feel about this, could you tell me what kinds of things come to mind when you think about fewer government services?]
	\item Standard of living: Same as standard wording but ends with [We'd like to know how you feel about this, but before telling me how you feel about this, could you tell me what kinds of things come to mind when you think about government making sure that every person has a good standard of living?]
	\item Aid to Blacks: Same as standard wording but ends with [We'd like to know how you feel about this, but before telling me how you feel about this, could you tell me what kinds of things come to mind when you think about the social and economic position of blacks?]
	\end{itemize*}
\end{itemize*}


\clearpage
\section{Nonequivalent Outcome Tests}

One concern with the analyses presented in the body of the paper is that they may mask general patterns of survey satisficing on the part of low-NE individuals. To test whether these individuals are also prone to providing non-informative responses to other types of questions, the analysis in this appendix involves patterns of DK responses to factual knowledge questions. The models in the table below present regressions of the proportion of DK responses given to factual knowledge questions on the same model presented in the body of the paper. As should be immediately clear, the strongest single predictor of DK responding here is political interest. While individuals low in NE do appear to provide more DKs (in 2000, 2004, and 2008), these effects are modest and smaller than those for political interest.

\begin{center}
\input{tables/knowledgedks.txt}
\end{center}
{\tablenote * p<0.05.  Cell entries are linear regression coefficients with associated standard errors in parentheses. Data from the American National Election Studies 1998 Pilot Study; 2000, 2004, and 2008 Times Series studies; and 2008--2009 Online Panel.}

\subsubsection*{2008--2009 Online Panel}
\noindent The political knowledge scale for the Online Panel comes from twelve questions from panel wave 11, which asked:
\begin{itemize*}
\item What state does U.S. Senator John McCain represent in Congress? (Closed response)
\item What state does U.S. Senator Barack Obama represent in Congress? (Closed response)
\item What is Barack Obama's religion? Is he Christian, Jewish, Muslim, Buddhist, or not religious? (Closed response)
\item What is John McCain's religion? Is he Christian, Jewish, Muslim, Buddhist, or not religious? (Closed response)
\item Before he was elected to the U.S. Congress, where did Barack Obama work? (Closed response)
\item Before he was elected to the U.S. Congress, where did John McCain work? (Closed response)
\item Do you happen to know how many times an individual can be elected President of the United States under current laws? (Open response)
\item For how many years is a United States Senator elected --- that is, how many years are there in one full term of office for a U.S. Senator? (Open response)
\item How many U.S. Senators are there from each state? (Open response)
\item For how many years is a member of the United States House of Representatives elected --- that is, how many years are there in one full term of office for a U.S. House member? (Open response)
\item According to federal law, if the President of the United States dies, is no longer willing or able to serve, or is removed from office by Congress, the Vice President would become the President. If the Vice President were unable or unwilling to serve, who would be eligible to become president next? (The Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, the Secretary of State, or the Speaker of the House of Representatives / The Speaker of the House of Representatives, the Secretary of States, or the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court)? (Closed response)
\item What percentage vote of the House and the Senate is needed to override a Presidential veto? (A bare majority, two-thirds, three-fourths, or ninety percent / Ninety percent, three-fourths, two-thirds, or a bare majority)? (Closed response)
\end{itemize*}

\noindent For use as a covariate in the analysis, these questions were coded 1 if a correct response was given and 0 otherwise. For use as an outcome measure in this appendix, the questions were coded 1 if the respondent provided no answer to the question and 0 otherwise.

For the 2000, 2004, and 2008 analyses in the main text, political knowledge was based on the interviewer's subjective rating of knowledge. For those surveys and the 1998 Pilot Study, when used as an outcome measure in this appendix, knowledge was measured with several questions on each survey and coded 1 if the respondent provided no answer to the question and 0 otherwise.

\subsubsection*{1998 Pilot Study}
\begin{itemize*}
\item Who has the final responsibility to decide if a law is constitutional or not\dots is it the President, Congress, or the Supreme Court?
\item And whose responsibility is it to nominate judges to the Federal Courts\dots the President, Congress, or the Supreme Court?
\item Do you happen to know which party has the most members in the House of Representatives in Washington?
\item Do you happen to know which party has the most members in the U.S. Senate?
\end{itemize*}

\subsubsection*{2000 Time Series}
\begin{itemize*}
\item The first name is Trent Lott. What job or political office does he now hold?
\item William Rehnquist. What job or political office does he now hold?
\item Tony Blair. What job or political office does he now hold?
\item Janet Reno. What job or political office does he now hold?
\item What U.S. state does George W. Bush live in now?
\item What is George W. Bush's religion?
\item What U.S. state is Al Gore from originally?
\item What is Al Gore's religion?
\item What U.S. state does Dick Cheney live in now?
\item What is Dick Cheney's religion?
\item What U.S. state does Joseph Lieberman live in now?
\item What is Joseph Lieberman's religion?
\item Do you happen to know which party had the most members in the House of Representatives in Washington before the election (this/last) month?
\item Do you happen to know which party had the most members in the U.S. Senate before the election (this/last) month?
\end{itemize*}

\subsubsection*{2004 Time Series}
\begin{itemize*}
\item The first name is Dennis Hastert. What job or political office does he now hold?
\item Dick Cheney. What job or political office does he now hold?
\item Tony Blair. What job or political office does he now hold?
\item William Rehnquist. What job or political office does he now hold?
\item Do you happen to know which party had the most members in the House of Representatives in Washington before the election (this/last) month?
\item Do you happen to know which party had the most members in the U.S. Senate before the election (this/last) month?
\end{itemize*}

\subsubsection*{2008 Time Series}
\begin{itemize*}
\item Do you happen to know which party had the most members in the House of Representatives in Washington before the election (this/last) month?
\item Do you happen to know which party had the most members in the U.S. Senate before the election (this/last) month?
\end{itemize*}

\clearpage
\section{Replications with the 1998 ANES Pilot Study}

This appendix replicates the results from the 2000, 2004, and 2008 ANES surveys with data from the 1998 ANES Pilot Study, which was the first ANES survey to measure cognitive style. The Pilot Study only asked the Spending/Services question, so these results are not reported in the body of the paper.

Despite coming from a much smaller sample than those studies, the results (shown in the table below) replicate the finding that NE decreases nonattitude responses (though the effect is not statistically different from zero), as well as the finding that NE increases attitude extremity. These findings also closely correspond to the results reported by Bizer et al. (2000),\footnote{Bizer, George~Y., Jon~A. Krosnick, Richard~E. Petty, Derek~D. Rucker, and S.C. Wheller. 2000. ``Need for Cognition and Need to Evaluate in the 1998 National Election Survey Pilot Study.'' Technical report American National Election Studies Board of Overseers.} who use the different questions from the same survey to examine nonattitudes and attitude extremity.

\begin{center}
\input{tables/replication98.txt}
\end{center}
{\tablenote * p<0.05.  Cell entries are linear regression coefficients with associated standard errors in parentheses. Data from the American National Election Studies 1998 Pilot Study.}

\end{document}